Sports Nutrition Guide

Through Reflex Nutrition’s extensive relationships with both consumers and retail trade there is a widely recognised need to help increase levels of sports nutrition knowledge and subsequent confidence in decisions concerning sports supplements use.

Whilst we do recognise that there is an extensive amount of information available, it comes from a multitude of different sources which in part conflict and are often written with a sales focus.

Reflex Nutrition’s Sports Nutrition Guide is accessible, reliable information that establishes the basic principles. It covers such important factors as body type, diet, lifestyle, the general principles of sports nutrition supplementation and many specific supplement topics.

During the following months and years the guide will grow and develop encompassing new sports nutrition research, new sports supplements and new ways of using supplements.

The guide is very easy to navigate just click on the topic of sports nutrition you are interested in and you’ll be taken directly to it.

If you have any questions that you cannot find the answers to within The Sports Nutrition Guide please contact us via our contact page.

Sports supplements have been used in various guises for many decades by athletes and bodybuilders. Even as early as the 1940s research indicated that supplemental protein could increase muscle mass if used by strength training athletes. However the last decade has seen the evolution of a multi million pound, international industry.

As the industry has grown, the products have become more advanced and the scientific scrutiny and testing has increased. It is fair to say that as the industry becomes more mainstream, the collective responsibility to ensure objective and concise information is readily available, increases.

In their very broadest sense, sports nutrition products are designed to improve performance and help aid recovery from intense exercise. Many sports supplements are in fact food supplements which means that they provide nutrients that are found in everyday foods but in a concentrated form. For example, whey protein is exceptionally high in protein (typically 80%) and can provide the same levels of protein found in a chicken breast but without the inconvenience of having to prepare and cook it.

As the name suggests, sports/food supplements should be complementary to a balanced diet. The majority of a person’s nutrients should always come from a diet being rich in unprocessed foods, using supplements to fill in any nutritional gaps.

Supplement Limitations

As the sports supplement industry has grown in size, marketing by companies has increased. Unfortunately, some of the communication used builds unrealistic expectations. As someone who may be recommending sports nutrition products to users, it is key to understand what can be realistically achieved by using sports nutrition products. Sports nutrition products are not miracle potions, they will not yield huge gains in performance, however they will aid the user when combined with other important factors.

In its simplest form, the key pillars to achieving physical goals fall into the following areas:

• Diet - Arguably the most important factor. With a diet that isn’t tailored towards the correct goals, the goals may well not be realized. In its broadest sense, diet will also include the use of supplements, although it is important that they are not the main source of nutrition.
• Training - Without the correct exercise plan, the body will not be subjected to the right stressors from which it can adapt. For example someone wanting to put on mass would not train the same way as someone preparing for a marathon.
• Rest - As the adage suggests, ‘you don’t grow in the gym’. Essentially recovery takes place in the days after training. If there is insufficient rest, training gains will be hindered and the body may go into a state of over training.

The most important aspect when recommending products is making sure that they are suitable for the user. Understanding the user’s goals and any potential intolerances is key to finding the right product for any given person. Additionally having an understanding of their lifestyle (active/desk job) and diet will also play a factor in the type of products that are suited.

Understanding Body Types

Ultimately the boundaries of any exercise programme will be limited by a person’s genetic make up. The simplest way of categorizing body types is to think of someone as thin, fat or muscular. This approach is known as somatotyping. The three somatotypes are known as; ectomorprhic (tall and thin), endomorphic (short and fat), or mesomorphic (muscular). They are best imagined as shapes where ectomorphic would be an upright rectangle, endomorphic a circle and mesomorphic as a triangle:

Real life sporting examples of each of the above (in sequence) would be basketball players, sumo wrestlers and then bodybuilders with each one representing an extreme example. However, it is important to note that most people do not fit perfectly into one somato type, rather they are likely to fall somewhere in between with aspects of different types. When considering supplementation, it is important to account for body type as they carry implications for an individual’s predisposition to achieve specific goals.

For instance, an endomorph body type may struggle to keep their body fat down but may find it easier to gain both muscle and fat. Goal dependent, these individuals may benefit from a more restrictive diet accompanied by products designed to increase their metabolism. Conversely the ectomorph body type who struggles to gain weight may have to increase food intake whilst supplementing with weight gainers in order to supply maximal gains. The ectomorph would need to avoid fat burners recognising that in general they have higher metabolisms than endomorphs and therefore a higher energy turnover. To build muscle or cause any training adaptations, generally there needs to be an energy surplus, meaning food intake and calories must be higher than calories used. As the endomorph uses less energy, they need less calories, whilst the opposite is true of the ectomorph body type. Ectomorphs are sometimes also titled ‘hard gainers’ due to the difficult time they have gaining weight. The body type that is usually best suited to the general athlete is the mesomorph which tends to put on little fat whilst producing maximal adaptation and gains from their training with ease. In general, as long as the basic requirements are met (i.e. adequate protein in the diet) these body types respond well to all dietary and supplemental protocols.

Energy Balance

To put this information into context, it is important to understand energy balance. Energy is liberated by catabolic processes which is the breaking down of large compounds to smaller ones. This energy is used to maintain bodily functions such as digestion, metabolizing food, thermoregulation (heat control), physical activity and adaptations. The amount of energy liberated per unit time is known as ones metabolic rate, which is subject to change. Metabolic rate depends on age, activity levels, weight, muscle mass, gender and body type of the individual (which is genetically influenced). The amount of energy needed to keep these functions going is seen as the ‘energy output’, which equals the calories needed to be used, shown below:

Energy output = External Work (i.e. exercise) + Energy Storage + Heat (all seen as metabolism.)

When energy intake is taken into account in order to have an energy balance, intake must equal output. There are 3 states of energy balance; positive, negative and balanced as depicted in the equations below:

Energy Output = Energy Intake (Balanced)
Energy Output < Energy Intake (Positive Energy Balance)
Energy Output > Energy Intake (Negative Energy Balance)

In a negative energy balance the person will draw energy from fat and glycogen stored within the body to meet energy requirements. Therefore weight loss will occur as insufficient energy is being supplied to maintain bodily functions. This is the scenario that people on a ‘diet’ are trying to achieve. In a positive energy balance, the excess energy will be stored as glycogen, fat or used for anabolic processes, whereas in a balanced state the body will maintain weight and function. To allow for adaptations and gains, it is important for the individual to have a positive energy balance which is achieved when more calories are consumed than are required to maintain normal bodily functions. However, it is important not to eat too much as the fat gain would be detrimental, usually an excess of 300-500 kcals is more than appropriate.

These are general guidelines and assume that the general goal is lean muscle mass. Under certain scenarios where different goals are desired, this approach may change. People approaching competitions will for instance have very specific dietary and supplement needs which will of course be dependent upon the nature of the competition.

The one thing that remains consistent across all advice, irrespective of body type/somatotype is that adequate amounts of protein must be consumed for optimal results. Therefore in order to make the correct dietary adjustments carbohydrate and fat intake must be manipulated in preference to protein. This is further explored in this document in later chapters. Furthermore although there are other more accurate methods for body assessment (e.g. fat percentage via callipers), somatotypes provide the user or adviser with a quick, easy and non-invasive means of assessing a physique and its needs, and for this purpose is the most understandable and useable.

Measuring the success of a supplement regime and monitoring the effects on the body is a vital tool for any new user of supplements as well as the experienced supplement user trying a new product. Those taking supplements for the first time should start with basic building blocks and progress once the respective benefits of each added supplement can be objectively assessed.

A useful start point (assuming lean muscle mass is the objective) may be to start supplementing with 25g of fast acting protein such as whey first thing in the morning and then before and after the workout. Progress in terms of performance increases, weight gain or loss, strength and body fat percentages should be maintained by the supplement user. In its most basic form, observation can be used to gauge progress.

The next step would be to add another supplement when a plateau is reached, repeating the process of evaluation. It is important to note some supplements are cycled to increase their efficacy, although these will be discussed later.

Many gym members or athletes can go for years without optimizing their performance gains if their diet is inadequate. By not consuming sufficient energy, the body will not recover or adapt to the stressor, in this case training. As the body has no surplus energy, no adaptation can occur and the body hits a plateau where no meaningful gains are seen. In order to determine an individual’s energy requirements it is important to know what their lifestyle entails. For example; do they walk to work, is their work active (i.e. manual labour) or sedentary (i.e. office, desk based) in its nature or somewhere inbetween.

Furthermore an individual’s training tolerance may also change due to their lifestyle. Training tolerance is seen as the amount someone can train without entering an overtrained state. An overtrained state is where an individual is unable to recover properly from life’s stresses which can lead to a compromised immune system, lack of adaptation ability, lethargy, poor sleep patterns and a loss or gain in appetite.

Although supplements such as antioxidants may aid in combating the negative effects of stress, they cannot be expected to compensate for over-training. Whilst supplements play a very positive role, the importance of understanding sources of stress in the lifestyle and managing them is key.

The most basic way of looking at energy is in terms of calories, or more accurately Kilocalories (kcals). Labelled on food packaging at the top of the table named ‘nutrition information’, they are expressed in relation to serving size as well as per 100g. The typical non-training male is said to require 2500 kcals per day and the typical female, 2000 kcals. This provides a basic approach to calorie counting but requires further clarification.

The body derives energy from three main sources known as macronutrients. These are proteins, carbohydrates and fats. Each macronutrient per gram provides not only differing amounts of Kilocalories but also carries out different functions within the body, which is why considering the ratios of each are important for health and recovery. Proteins and carbohydrates are the least kilocalorie dense macronutrients, roughly supplying 4 kcals/g each. Fat however is the most kilocalorie dense, supplying 9kcals/g. This helps to explain why many diets have a low fat focus.

However, some fats are essential to the human body and cannot be assimilated or made by the body. These are known as essential fatty acids and will be detailed further on. Equally important is carbohydrate which is the easiest fuel for the body to use and indeed the only fuel that our brains can use. Carbohydrate is known as glucose (in the blood) and glycogen (when stored in the liver and muscle cells). In order to utilize the latent energy in food, it must be first converted into these forms of carbohydrate. This is why fats and proteins are harder to use as they must first be converted through metabolic processes.

The preferred ratios of each macronutrient for a general athlete would be seen as around 24% protein, 33% fats and 43% carbohydrate. By simply counting calories it can be seen that significant dietary compromises might be made. Furthermore, the kcal intake of 2500 kcals per day is a gross simplification. By accounting for lifestyle factors and weight of the individual the equations within the appendix which can be found at the end of this document can be made more accurate for determining an individual’s energy requirements. To ensure the correct ratios, the simplest way is to multiply the percentages provided above by their Kilocalorie requirement. Assuming 2500kcals are required for maintenance, a further 300-500 kcals would be required to allow recovery and adaptation to training. These figures are based on a normal 180lb male. So taking the lower end of 2800kcals the following equations would apply:

Protein: 2800 x 0.24 = 672kcals/ day from protein or dividing it by 4 we are able to derive the grams required: 672/4 = 168 g of protein per day.

Carbohydrates: 2800 x 0.42 = 1176kcals/ day from carbohydrate or again divide it by 4 to establish the grams needed: 294g per day.

Fats: 2800 x 0.33 = 924kcals/ day needed from fat or divide it by 9 to determine grams/ day: 924/9 = 103 g per day.

It is best to divide these amounts over several meals and snacks every 2-4 hours, to ensure full assimilation of the nutrients and to avoid overloading the digestive system. Furthermore frequent feeding will provide a constant stream of energy and building blocks for body repair and function throughout the day, ensuring an anabolic state (meaning a state of growth/ building). Furthermore, eating consistently also stops the hormone insulin spiking, keeping the level steady throughout the day. This is important as it will reduce fat storage and the potential of developing such diseases as diabetes or heart problems.

The general objective of supplements for the active person is to aid general health and sporting goals. They are able to do this by increasing or optimising recovery rates, energy and energy stores, hormone production, feelings of well-being, alertness, concentration and building processes whilst reducing breakdown processes and much more. The first and most important rule to remember is that supplements only work in conjunction with a sound diet and training program i.e. they should supplement training and not compensate for a poor training regime or diet. Body type, age, gender, lifestyle and diet are all factors which will dictate what products are most appropriate. It is important to note that supplements can be useful for both men and women and can aid in health, weight management as well as specific sports and training goals. They are not simply the reserve of bodybuilders and weightlifters.

Lifestyle may, as already stated, impact on what supplements become appropriate. For example, someone able to sit and eat meals every 3-4 hours would not necessarily require supplements throughout the day. Where this is not possible, the use of supplements becomes obvious.

Protein is a macronutrient made from chains of compounds known as amino acids (Table 1). Depending on the source/type of protein, the series and number of amino acids making it will change its profile. However, there are only 20 amino acids from which a protein can be made. Eight of these amino acids are known as ‘essential amino acids’, because as humans, we must consume these through our diet to function properly as our bodies are unable to produce them. Three ‘essential amino acids’ are known as ‘Branch Chain Amino Acids’ (BCAA) (Table 1), which are heavily involved in anabolic (muscle building) and anti-catabolic (muscle preservation, anti-breakdown) activities. BCAA’s make up almost a 1/3 of skeletal muscle and aid in recovery. There are other amino acids such as glutamine (one of the most abundant amino acids in the muscle) which are known as ‘conditionally essential amino acids’. These amino acids can be produced by the body but in periods of high demand, such as under stress (emotional or physical) the body is unable to produce adequate amounts. For optimum function and recovery it is sometimes necessary to consume larger amounts of these amino acids through diet or supplementation. The number of differing amino acids within a food source is where the terms ‘complete’ and ‘incomplete’ proteins come from. Complete proteins contain all 20 amino acids including the 8 essential amino acids (Table 1); good examples are meat, poultry, eggs, fish and dairy products. Conversely incomplete proteins are those which lack one or more of these amino acids, for example fruits, vegetables, wheat and pulses. However it is possible to combine sources to obtain a complete amino acid profile, such as beans on toast.

As a macronutrient, protein is able to supply energy (4kcals/g of protein) and is usually only used as a major energy source when carbohydrate and fat stores are severely depleted, for example, at the end of a marathon. The body finds it extremely demanding to process protein for energy as it must first be converted to carbohydrate or glucose within the body through a process called gluconeogenesis. Protein is an essential building block for DNA, muscle, hormones (for example insulin), immune system cells known as immunoglobulins, and much more. Protein requirements for athletes or hard training individuals are higher than that of the average sedentary individual due to the extra stress and trauma caused to the muscle and body. Whilst protein requirement can be calculated as a ratio of daily kilocalorie requirement, there are also broad guidelines that recommend a daily allowance of 0.8g per kg of bodyweight. However, it has been known for sometime that those involved in intense training have a higher requirement for protein with studies suggesting anywhere from 1.3g-2g of protein per kilo of body weight.

Amino Acid Chart (Table 1)

Whey Protein

Quick Facts: Protein source derived from milk, contains all essential and non-essential amino acids

Benefits: High biological value and fast digesting

Dose: Use as a food supplement to make up shortfall in dietary protein.

Whey protein is the most popular sports nutrition product within the industry.

Whey is a natural protein that is found in milk, with approximately 20% of the protein in milk being whey, 80% is micellar casein. Whey protein has become the primary choice of protein for the majority of supplement users over the past decade for various reasons;

Firstly, whey protein is highly bioavailable. The simplest measure of the utilisation of protein by the human body is Biological Value (BV). BV is essentially a measure of how much of a given protein the body will retain and utilise. Using the BV scale whey protein has the perfect score of 100, so if you were to consume 25g of whey, your body would utilise and absorb 25g of protein.

The chart below shows other source of protein, both food and supplements which clearly highlights how good a source whey is.

Additionally, whey is very fast digesting which means that the body can breakdown the protein into amino acids very quickly and utilise it straight away. After intense training, this is of primary concern so the body can start the process of recovery immediately.

Bioavailability chart (Table 2)

From a sports nutrition perspective there are two commonly available types of whey protein; concentrate and isolate. Typically products that contain mainly whey protein concentrate will be between 65%-80% protein, with the higher protein content being a key factor in determining the quality. A whey protein isolate is further filtered than the concentrate and removes more of the fat and lactose. Products made from isolate will be higher in protein, 85-90% but will cost more due to the additional manufacturing process. Those who are lactose intolerant or are watching their fat/carb intake may benefit from whey protein isolate over concentrate.

Micellar Casein

Quick Facts: Protein source derived from milk, contains all essential and non-essential amino acids

Benefits: Slow digesting protein source, ideal to be used during the day or before bed to provide gradual release of amino acids

Dose: Use as a food supplement to make up shortfall in dietary protein.

Whilst whey protein gets most of the attention when it comes to protein supplements, micellar casein has benefits that whey simply cannot match.

Micellar casein forms a gel in the stomach upon digestion which slows down the digestion of the amino acids, providing an almost drip feed action of protein into the blood. This typically lasts for 6-8 hours.

In a ground breaking study carried out by Dr Yves Boire, the differences in metabolic responses of whey protein and casein were individually observed over a 7 hour period in 16 young & healthy subjects. The findings were very interesting and have shown that both casein and whey have very different applications when it comes to maintaining and building muscle tissues.

1. Casein was found to inhibit muscle breakdown by 34% over a 7 hour period
2. Blood plasma amino acid concentrations remained significantly higher over a 7 hour period with casein compared to whey
3. Blood plasma amino acid concentrations dropped dramatically after 3 hours in the group consuming whey
4. Although blood plasma levels dropped dramatically with whey, the net increase in protein synthesis was boosted by 68%

So what do these findings mean to the average athlete? Which one is better, whey or casein? When the body is in need of a ’quick protein hit’ such as immediately after training, then whey is ideal. However at other times of the day and before bed, when further protein won’t be consumed for several hours, a slow digesting source of protein such as casein is the ideal choice.

Correctly supplemented protein allows for faster muscle recovery, improved immune function and better hormonal control of the body. Protein supplements are generally well tolerated and work for those undertaking hard training or those that do not consume sufficient protein through their diet.

When using any type of protein supplement, a question that often get asked is; how much should I take? There is a generally accepted level within the industry of 2g of protein per kg of body weight per day.

One of the major misconceptions surrounding protein is that by simply increasing protein intake, muscle mass can be gained. This is simply not the case. Intense training is required to provide the stimulus for growth.

A protein is simply a chain of amino acids that have been linked by a peptide bond. The sports nutrition industry has seen a rise of the availability of specific amino acids that have unique properties that make them useful for intense training athletes.

Branch Chain Amino Acids

Quick Facts: Three amino acids that are classed as Essential Amino Acids (EAA’s)

Benefits: Protein sparring effect, can be used directly by the muscle as fuel

Dose: 3g-5g taken pre and post workout

Branch Chain Amino Acids (BCAA’s) are three essential amino acids (isoleucine, leucine and valine) that have become increasingly popular as standalone supplements as they can help reduce muscle catabolism (breakdown) helping to preserve lean muscle tissue, which is particularly important on a kcal restricted diet. Additionally, they are the only amino acid that is not readily broken down by the liver and can be used directly in the muscle as a source of fuel.

Of all three BCAA’s, leucine is of most interest. Over the past 3 years the scientific community has undertaken several studies on leucine to gain a better understanding of it. The studies highlighted that leucine can directly help stimulate protein synthesis via activating mTOR. In laymans’ terms, protein synthesis is the process in which the body synthesizes new muscle tissue. When combined with intense training, the addition of BCAA’s or leucine may lead to greater gains in recovery and muscle mass.

L-Glutamine

Quick Facts: Non-essential amino acid found in muscle cells

Benefits: Prevent muscle breakdown and reduce exercise induced immune depression

Dose: 3 x 5g daily

L-glutamine is another amino acid supplement that is often utilised. Glutamine is a conditionally essential amino acid. This means that under normal conditions the body can synthesize enough to meet its own demand. However, under conditions of stress such as intense exercise, the demand increases and the body cannot produce enough, hence the need to supplement. Glutamine is the most abundant free amino acid in the muscle cells and is essential for cell growth.

Additionally glutamine is a source of energy for lymphocytes, the immune system cells. Studies have highlighted that glutamine helps to improve immune function in intensely training athletes.

However, carbohydrate also plays a key role for anyone undertaking intense exercise. Once carbohydrate is digested, the body converts it into glucose which is the only form that the body can use to create energy. Any glucose that isn’t utilised at the time directly for energy is stored within the muscle(s) or liver in the form of glycogen. If these stores are full then glycogen is converted into body fat.

Glycogen is an easily accessible source of energy for the body to utilise during exercise, so is particulary vital for those involved in aerobic exercise. The body can be depleted of glycogen, a scenario some marathon runners experience when they refer to ‘hitting the wall’. Additionally carbohydrates are protein sparring, meaning that protein can be used for its primary function instead of being converted in to fuel.

In their broadest sense there are three types of sports nutrition products that can be classed as protein/carb blends. We will attempt to explain what they are and how they can be used.

Weight Gainer

Quick Facts: Blend of protein and carbohydrates.

Benefits: Provides a convenient source of Kcals for those looking to add weight.

Dose: Use as a food supplement to increase daily Kcals intake to make sure the body stays in a positive nitrogen balance.

As the name suggests, these types of products are designed to aid the user in putting on weight. Very simply, they are a blend of protein and carbohydrate and help increase daily kcal intake. The key factor in putting on weight is making sure that you are in a positive energy balance. By using a weight gainer you have access to a convenient way to increase daily kcal intake.

One of the main considerations when using a weight gain product is quality and suitability of the ingredients contained within. Unfortunately, many of the products currently available on the market use maltodextrin as their main source of carbohydrate. Maltodextrin, whilst technically classed as a complex carbohydrate (typically slow digesting), ranks very highly on the glycemic Index (GI). GI is the ranking of foods based on their impact on blood sugar levels, essentially the speed at which they are digested and converted into glucose. A food source with a high GI is digested very quickly and will cause a sudden spike in blood sugar, which the body reacts to by actually reducing blood sugar levels which may lead to fatigue. (Think of a sugar crash after eating lots of sweets). Additionally, spiking blood sugar levels may also lead to increases in body fat levels. Low GI carbs are broken down slower and don’t cause a sudden rise in blood sugar and help maintain stable energy levels. Additionally, there is less chance of fat storage with low GI carbs. The typical choice of low GI carbs used in some products are oats and/or barley.

The other key factor in weight gain products is the protein contained within the product. Ideally a blend of protein sources should be used to take advantage of their differing digestion rates. Whey protein on its own would be digested too quickly. However combining whey with another source of protein such as egg white or micellar casein, which both digest far slower than whey would allow amino acids to feed muscle growth over several hours.

The other consideration with weight gainers is the carbohydrate to protein ratio. Typically, sources of carbohydrate are far cheaper than source of protein, so most weight gainers tend have a high carbohydrate to protein ratio. Ideally we would want a product that is as close to a 50:50 split as possible.

There may be other ingredients added to a weight gain product, however it is the carbohydrate and protein source that is the key factor in the products suitability.

Meal Replacements (MRP's)

Quick Facts: Blend of protein, carbohydrates, vitamins & minerals.

Benefits: Can be used to replace a meal and provide balanced nutrition or can be used with a meal to increase Kcal intake.

Dose: Use to meet the individual’s dietary needs.

As the name suggests, MRP’s are designed to replace whole food meals. They will typically provide similar macro and micro nutrients that you would find in a balanced meal. MRP’s are usually found in sachet form which makes them very useful for many people providing convenience, portability and ease of use.

MRP’s are somewhat of an anomaly as they can be used to either help lose weight or gain weight depending on how the product is used. For example, if you were looking to lose weight you could replace a whole food meal with an MRP, so you get balanced nutrition with a controlled calorie profile. If you are trying to gain weight you could use an MRP in between meals or even with a meal to increase overall Kcal intake, which is vital for weight/muscle gain.

As with weight gain products, it is the quality and suitability of ingredients that are the key determining factors when comparing products. Arguably the most important ingredient will be the type of carbohydrate that is used, particularly for those looking to lose weight. Ideally, a slow release source (also known as low GI) is used for different reasons including satiety (satisfying hunger). If someone is using one of these products for weight control reasons the last thing they want is to feel hungry after using one and therefore likely to eat further food. A majority of low GI carbohydrate sources are accompanied by a good dose of fibre. Fibre has many health benefits and is vital to keeping a healthy digestive system. Some types are also strongly linked with maintaining a healthy heart e.g. beta glucan. One of fibres’ biggest benefits is that it can slow the digestion of foods helping to promote a feeling of ‘fullness’ and satiety which will help keep hunger pangs at bay.

Naturally, as with the weight gain products, the protein used is also of key importance. Again, a product that provides a blend of fast and slow release protein would be the best option.

A majority of MRPs that are currently available will usually provide more protein than carbohydrates. Assuming that you have two products that have quality ingredients but a different ratio of carbohydrates and protein, then the choice, as with all nutritional supplements, is based on what fits into the specific individual requirements such as their daily Kcal intake, protein requirements, etc.

The idea of a post-workout supplement is to restore muscle glycogen, to rehydrate and begin anabolic muscle building processes as well as to minimize the catabolic state the workout has just created. As such it is important to choose fast digesting carbohydrates and proteins. Good examples would be dextrose and whey respectively. During the workout, the body uses blood glucose and stored glucose known as glycogen for fuel. Glycogen is stored within the liver and muscles and when broken down, along with glucose, is able to provide energy for muscular contraction. Furthermore, as we train the body uses the muscles’ BCAA’s for fuel. Therefore a good post-workout supplement will contain enough carbohydrate, and BCAA’s (particularly lecuine) to restore the body’s net loss and to allow adaptation and repair to take place. As well as the type of protein and carbohydrate, the respective ratio is important. Studies have shown conclusively that ingesting a carbohydrate/protein blend is the optimum solution in stimulating glycogen replenishment and protein synthesis. In fact, post-workout blends incorporating both protein and carbohydrate have been shown to be 38% more effective at facilitating protein synthesis, 69% better at reducing free-radical build-up (which causes tissue breakdown, something that will be discussed later) and 20% better at causing an insulin response.

Simple carbohydrates (i.e. dextrose and those sources high on the GI index) are powerful stimulators of insulin release; they also provide a basis for the formation of muscle glycogen. Insulin is a powerful stimulator for nutrient uptake into the muscles and liver. In this sense one can imagine insulin as being a shuttle system aiding what the athlete ingests into the right places. Emphasising the importance of post-workout nutrition further is the fact that the body is extremely receptive to nutrients due to the previous depletion caused by the workout. Therefore anabolic/recovery response to nutrients post-workout is much greater than at other times during the day.

Whilst spiking insulin directly after strenuous activity helps with the uptake of nutrients, when spikes are caused and the body has no need to utilize increased insulin, a build of fat can be created. Furthermore, the cells which produce insulin within the liver are easily worn out causing the onset of diabetes (Type II). Therefore, slower and more sustained sources of the macronutrients are usually a better choice at this time as this will allow the continuation of an anabolic/recovery environment and provide energy for everyday living, increasing feelings of well being.

Creatine is the most comprehensively researched supplement with over 2000 research studies focused upon it.

Creatine is an endogenous (made by the body) substance that is present in every human cell. It functions as an energy storehouse. Creatine is required for physical and mental exertion. It is found naturally in our diets and is rich in red meat and some fish such as herring.

In the body, creatine is synthesized from the amino acids glycine, arginine, and methionine, primarily in the liver, kidneys, and pancreas and is transported from there to all the cells in the body via the bloodstream. Since creatine is involved in all processes that require energy, muscle, brain and nerve cells receive correspondingly larger amounts.

The creatine reserves of a person who weighs 70 kg is equal to about 120 grams. The vast majority of creatine (c. 95%) is stored in the skeletal muscles. Creatine is primarily involved in muscle contraction. It is taken from the blood into the cell membrane by means of a sodium-dependent creatine transporter.

Approximately 60-70% of the total creatine in muscle is stored in the form of the high energy molecule phosphocreatine. The remaining 30-40% is present in the form of free creatine. Besides adenosine triphosphate, phosphocreatine is the most important source for energy in the body. All of the body’s cells can use only adenosine triphosphate (ATP) as an energy-releasing substance. Since the ATP reserves in the body are limited, ATP has to be continuously resynthesized. ATP is produced from the energy sources fat and carbohydrate over a fairly long time frame.

Phosphocreatine resynthesis is critical for restoring muscle power at the beginning of the next set of intensive exercises. An increased resynthesis rate makes it possible to complete more intensive training sets, which is an advantage for explosive sports disciplines in particular.

During very intensive, repetitive forms of exercise there is enough ATP for 1-2 seconds of exercise, and phosphocreatine is available for the immediate regeneration of ATP. However, phosphocreatine stores last approximately 10 seconds. Increasing phosphocreatine levels in muscle results in the delayed breakdown of phosphocreatine, which has a beneficial effect on muscle performance. More than 20 clinical trials have shown that creatine supplementation significantly improves muscle strength and/or performance during short bouts of high-intensity exercise.

The greatest improvements in performance can be found during a series of repetitive high-intensity types of exertion that are interrupted by a fairly brief period of rest (e.g. 20-60 seconds). The rest breaks are sufficient to achieve greater recovery of phosphocreatine concentrations.

For sports that require speed, such as sprinting, long jump, swimming, and for intensive strength training by bodybuilders and cyclists, short-term creatine supplementation can greatly improve performance in the areas of maximum strength and endurance (5-15%), with interval training in the maximum range (5-20%), power production in short sprints (30%) and in training with repetitive sprints (5-15%).

Different mechanisms are involved in the ergogenic effects of creatine supplementation:

• Higher phosphocreatine concentrations serve as immediate reserves for ATP during exertion.
• Increased phosphocreatine resynthesis rate during and after exertion due to increased levels of creatine.
• Smaller decrease in muscle pH during exertion.
• Greater training capacity.
• Increase in muscle mass (absolute power output).

It is possible that some individuals are non-responders. If they report no results this may be because their body is able to produce enough creatine to keep its pools of creatine full or because their body finds it hard utilising the supplement. In this instance, it would be recommended that they combine creatine with simple sugars or replace this with an appropriately formulated quality product, which incorporates simple sugars. The sugars cause a peak in insulin and help drive creatine into the muscles. In fact, studies amongst non responders have shown that the addition of sugars can increase creatine uptake by 60%. If there is still no response when combined with this insulin spike, it may be more appropriate to try an alternative supplement.

With reference to its safety and side affects, creatine has been thoroughly evaluated in long term clinical safety studies. Using Creapure®, the main focus was to evaluate if long-term creatine monohydrate supplementation (average of 5 grams/day) might increase the incidence of musculoskeletal injury, heat-related disorders (e.g. dehydration and cramping), or renal stress.

Clinical assessments included analyzing a comprehensive panel of serum and whole blood markers (electrolytes, muscle and liver enzymes, substrates, lipid profiles, red and white blood cells, etc.), renal function tests determined by creatinine clearance, monitoring of injuries treated by the medical/athletic training staff, as well as the collection of medical safety and fatigue/weakness data.

The results of these safety studies on the long-term use of creatine monohydrate have consistently shown that, in comparison to athletes who did not take creatine, those who took creatine did not experience a greater incidence of injuries, heat-related disorders, dehydration, cramping, musculoskeletal injuries, or gastrointestinal disturbances. Additionally, athletes who took creatine over a long period did not have significantly higher muscle and liver enzymes, altered electrolytes, or increased renal stress determined by creatine clearance.

The last 5 years has seen new forms of creatine come to the market such as Creatine Ethyl Ester (CEE) and Tri-Creatine Malate. All of the research on creatine has been undertaken using creatine monohydrate. In fact most other forms of creatine do not have a single research study to show that they are effective or safe. Additionally a majority of the research on creatine monohydrate has actually been conducted using a particular brand. Creapure® is manufactured in Germany and is considered to be the highest quality creatine available. Independent testing in the 1990’s highlighted that much of the creatine monohydrate available contained impurities, however Creapure® did not contain any detectable amounts.

The importance of hydration cannot be overestimated. The body is comprised of over 70% water and it is essential to life and function. To emphasise the importance of water, the body is able to survive for longer periods without food than without fluid. Proper hydration allows the body to:

• Maintain body temperature
• Maintain blood pressure and volume
• Maintain adequate sweat rates for cooling
• Maintain stroke volume (the amount of blood the heart pumps per beat)
• Prevent cramping
• Prevent mental fatigue
• Prevent heat exhaustion
• Prevent circulatory collapse and stroke 
• Prevent death

From the above list, it becomes obvious how severe the consequences of being dehydrated can be. Table 4 below documents how varying levels of dehydration may affect your performance and well being.

Dehydration levels and effects on physiology (Table 4)

More specifically, in relation to sporting activities a loss of 3-5% causes a decrease in reaction times, sweat rate, muscular endurance and motor performance (muscle movement). The reasons for these side effects are due to a loss of essential electrolytes and blood volume. Electrolytes are molecules such as sodium and potassium (known as ions) which have an electrical charge within the body (hence the term ‘electro’-lyte). It is the movement of these ions which allow such things as muscular contraction to occur. The influx (or entering) of sodium into the muscle cell increases its electrical charge and allows contraction whereas the efflux (exiting) of potassium allows the removal of this charge and the cessation of the contraction. This works by differing concentrations of ions inside and outside of the cell. When there is a loss of electrolytes, these concentrations are upset and thus muscular function declines. Therefore when rehydrating it is important to replace not only water but also electrolytes.

When there is a loss of blood volume due to dehydration it becomes more difficult for the body to deliver oxygen, nutrients and other vital factors as well as remove waste products such as lactic acid and CO2 from the muscle. Again this in itself is enough for the individual to feel enough discomfort and cease exercising. Another issue with a drop in blood volume is that this is coupled with increased blood pressure and decreased stroke volume. Stroke volume is the amount of blood, and therefore oxygen and nutrients that the heart pumps per beat into the systemic circuit (i.e. limbs and organs). Furthermore, as blood contains many molecules and compounds such as glucose, red blood cells and white blood cells, when the bloods’ water content is lowered through dehydration, the blood becomes more viscous. This causes more friction when passing though veins and arteries and the vascular network of the body, which is what causes a rise in blood pressure. This can result in death as the strain placed on the heart leads to cardiovascular failure, stroke or heart attack. This has occurred in sports such as the Tour de France.

There are varying formulations, which have been designed for the athlete to optimise both hydration and refuelling; these are known as, isotonic, hypertonic and hypotonic.

Isotonic drinks contain the same concentration of carbohydrate and electrolytes as the body’s own fluids. As such, isotonic drinks are considered to have the same osmolality as the bodys’ own fluid and are therefore absorbed quicker than water into the system. Most supplements contain a concentration of glucose between 6-8g per 100ml (or a concentration of between 6-8%). This is considered the optimum solution for rehydration and refuelling during exercise.

Hypertonic drinks are those which contain a greater concentration of carbohydrate and electrolytes than body fluid. As the osmolality is higher than the body’s own fluids, they are absorbed at a slower rate than water or isotonic drinks. These drinks must contain more than 8g of carbohydrate per 100ml of water, or over 8%. Due to their high carbohydrate content and slower gastric emptying rate (meaning absorption or release from the gastrointestinal tract), these drinks are very beneficial after exercise for glycogen (body carbohydrate) replenishment and fluid replacement, where a slower rate is more desirable avoiding a flooding effect which dilutes the body’s electrolytes causing up-regulated dieresis (excretion of water from the body). 

Hypotonic drinks are those drinks which contain less carbohydrate and electrolytes than body fluids. These may sometimes have an isotonic level of electrolytes with a hypotonic level of carbohydrate (even sometimes zero). These products are best suited to those looking to optimise hydration without the added calories or carbohydrate; for instance those athletes dieting to make weight (i.e. martial arts or boxing) or a competitive bodybuilder preparing for competition. Like isotonic drinks, these are absorbed more quickly than plain water or hypertonic drinks and are best used before or during exercise. 

When considering hydration or rehydration, the athlete should consider several factors; tolerance, time of consumption and dietary needs. For example someone on a carbohydrate/calorie restricted diet may wish to limit these in their rehydration plan. However, carbohydrate is the body’s main source of energy whilst exercising, and is in fact the body’s preferred fuel source as it is the most easily used, therefore the replacement of carbohydrate is essential for optimum performance. Both hypertonic and isotonic drinks feel heavy on some athlete’s stomachs and give them an urging feeling. Similarly, the amount of water digested can make the stomach feel bloated. For optimal hydration during sporting activity, the below is recommended;

• Before physical activity – 500-600ml of water or a chosen sports drink should be consumed, with a further 200-300ml 20 minutes prior to exercise.
• During the activity – 200-300ml should be consumed every 20 minutes achieved by sipping frequently, to ensure fluid and electrolyte replacement.
• After physical activity – allow 2 hours for rehydration, this again should be achieved by sipping on fluids. Taking onboard larger quantities in a single sitting can overload the system further diluting electrolytes and causing water loss by flooding the system.

Over recent years, the sports supplement industry have developed ‘advanced’ hydration products that are designed to be used pre/during/post event, with the goal of maintaining optimal performance, recovery as well hydration. For most endurance athletes muscle recovery is a major issue, so therefore the addition of a fast digesting protein such as whey will aid the user ability in recovery for their next session. Additionally the benefits of antioxidants is hugely important, particularly for those involved in ultra endurance events. During aerobic respiration the production of free radicals within the body is increased, under normal conditions the body has enough antioxidants to render free radicals harmless. However during very intense exercise, the body may not be able to cope so the addition of antioxidants well help combat this problem.

There are two aspects to the pre-workout window that can help improve performance/training. Firstly, the nutritional side and secondly the use of a specific pre-workout product.

Pre-Workout Nutrition

Our main goal of pre-workout nutrition is make sure the body has sufficient energy to meet the demands of an intense training session/event. Typically many trainers have considered post workout as the most important nutritional time of the day, although more recent research highlights the importance of pre workout nutrition. In a recent scientific paper published by the Journal of International Society of Sports Science and Nutrition it was stated that the ingestion of protein alone or in combination with carbohydrate, before resistance exercise can maximally stimulate protein synthesis. It appears that protein taken in the pre-workout window benefits from increased delivery of amino acids to the muscle tissue, where it can exert its recovery properties.

Whilst protein intake is important pre-workout, so is our carbohydrate intake as it allows the body to maintain steady blood glucose (stopping dips in energy) and maximise glycogen stores. Studies have highlighted that in the pre-workout phase, low GI sources are preferential as they can deliver a sustained source of energy during the later stages of exercise when energy levels may typically drop.

Pre-Workout Supplements

The past 5 years has seen the development of a new sector of products in the sports nutrition industry. Pre-workout products have been designed to give the user an immediate feeling of energy and provide nutrients that will aid performance and training. There are a whole host of ingredients that may be used within pre-workout products. The list below provides a brief overview of some of the most widely used ingredients as well their benefits:

Caffeine

Effective dose: 100mg-200mg 30 mins before workout

Caffeine is the most widely used drug in the world, with millions of people relying on a caffeine ‘pick me up’ from their morning cup of coffee. It’s a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that has a host of potential benefits to aid athletic performance. Firstly, and the main reason that most people use caffeine, is due to its ability to stave off fatigue and wake people up. After a hard days work, visiting the gym can seem like hard work. A moderate dose of caffeine helps increase focus, reduce fatigue and helps people get into the ‘zone’. Studies have shown that caffeine can reduce the perceived rate of exertion and has shown to improve performance in endurance athletes.

Whilst caffeine is well tolerated by many, there are some issues that the user should be aware. The first is that as a stimulant, caffeine may affect sleep if taken to close to sleep. Additionally, large doses of caffeine may cause an increase in anxiety. Ideally pre workout supplements should contain 100-200mg of caffeine, enough to produce the desired effect but generally insufficient to cause any negative effects.

Beta Alanine

Effective Dose: 1.6grams – 3grams daily

Beta alanine is a naturally occurring beta amino acid. Recent research has highlighted beta alanines’ ability to buffer hydrogen ions. During intense exercise, there becomes a build up of lactic acid and hydrogen ions which we can feel as a burning muscle sensation. As this happens it causes a drop in the pH of the muscle and ultimately exercise intensity has to be reduced or stopped. Beta alanine helps increase muscle levels of carnosine which directly helps to slow down the fall in muscle pH, allowing exercise intensity to be maintained for longer.

Many users who take products containing beta alanine may notice something called parathesia, a slight pin & needles feeling under the skin. Some people are more tolerant of it, others find it very uncomfortable. It is however completely harmless.

Arginine

Effective Dose: 3 grams 30 mins before workout

Arginine is an amino acid that has become very popular over the last 5 years. It has been a vital part of many Nitric Oxide (NO) based products. Once ingested the body uses arginine to convert to NO. NO plays many vital roles within the human body with one of its main functions being to relax muscle fibres. If muscle fibres are relaxed then more blood can be circulated through them. In the case of its gym application, it allows more blood to be driven to the working muscle, creating what is referred to as ‘the pump’. This additional blood flow helps to deliver nutrient rich blood to the muscles and removes waste build up, helping to improve recovery time.

BCAA’s (Branch Chain Amino Acids)

Effective dose: 3 -7grams 30 mins before workout

We have already discussed BCAAs as a supplement, however they are often used within pre-workout products. They are a good choice as they spare the use of body protein (muscle tissue) as an energy source, can be used by the muscle directly for energy and key nutrients in signalling protein synthesis.

Citrulline Malate

Effective dose: 3-4 grams 30 mins before exercise

Citrulline is a non essential amino acid that plays a role in many metabolic pathways. The malate part is formed when malic acid is bonded to citrulline. Citrulline has been shown to aid aerobic performance by having a positive effect on lactic acid metabolism helping to slow down fatigue. Citrulline malate is often used in NO products along with arginine as citrulline is a precursor to arginine within the body, helping to increase NO levels.

In essence pre-workout products can therefore be seen to; increase anabolism, exercise capacity, focus, alertness, motivation as well as reduce fatigue.

One of the main issues with pre-workout products is that many companies adopt a ‘kitchen sink’ approach including a vast array of ingredients within the product without adhering to the research proven effective dosage levels. There is however one product that does faithfully follow the research proven doses we talked about above, its called Tri-Matrix

General health supplements are those products which usually can be found in high street health food and supplement stores. When referring to general health supplements, reference is generally being made to vitamins, minerals and antioxidants as well as products such as joint aids or testosterone support products. These products are small compounds which are vital within the body for energy release, hormone production, recovery and general functioning of the body. These products usually act as enzymes within the body meaning they will aid and start reactions within the body that are essential to life.

Vitamins & Minerals

Vitamins and minerals are the biggest selling form of health supplements. Vitamins are an organic compound that are required in small amounts by the human body. They cannot be synthesised by the body and therefore have to be supplied by our diet. They are involved in a wide variety of functions within the body such as formation of hormones, antioxidants and cell and tissue growth to name just a few. Broadly speaking there are two types of vitamins:

Water soluble - Dissolve easy in water and are readily excreted by the body if not utilised, therefore daily intake is required.

Fat Soluble - Are absorbed into the body via the intestinal tract with the help of fat(s). They can accumulate within the body and therefore regular high doses need to be avoided.

If sufficient vitamin intake is not maintained then a deficiency may occur and disease will set in. For example a lack of vitamin C leads to scurvy or a lack of vitamin D can cause ricketts. The government have set Guideline Daily Amounts (GDA) for vitamins, however these are set to stave off disease and not for optimum health.

Minerals are essential nutrients that the body requires to function properly. Much like vitamins, minerals are required by the body as they are vital in many enzyemic reactions. If not supplied in sufficient quantities then optimum health is compromised.

Due to the demands that are placed on many athletes via intense training, they are considered to have higher requirements for vitamins and minerals, particularly those involved in energy metabolism, tissue growth and repair, such as B vitamins, vitamin C, magnesium and zinc. This is why many, whilst eating a balanced diet, will also take a multi vitamin and mineral supplement too.

One of the main concerns when choosing a multi vitamin and mineral supplement is the quality of the raw ingredients, particularly the type of minerals used. Many companies will use oxide based minerals, these are very cheap to buy, however they have very low bioavailability. A better option is to use a product that has amino acid chelated minerals. These are minerals that have been bonded to an amino acid to increase their stability, reduce molecular size which ultimately leads to better utilisation by the body. Additionall, where possible, source a product that contains natural vitamin E not synthetic vitamin E, as it has been found to be far more effective. Its easy to tell which form is used, if the vitamin E is listed with a D before its chemical name it the natural form. If it has DL then its the synthetic form.

Antioxidants

Antioxidants neutralize freeradicals. These free radicals cause damage and harm within the body and have been linked to cancer, arthritis, arteriosclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease, diabetes and premature ageing.

These free radicals also aid in scavenging for and destroying foreign bodies such as bacteria, fighting illness, inflammation and a process known as apoptosis. Although free radicals are integral for these functions it is still important to limit the production of free radicals for longevity and health. It is important to understand what a free radical is and furthermore how to reduce their effects.

To understand free radicals, it is important first to understand some basic chemistry about atoms and the stability of ions. Within the body there are varying types of cells made from varying compounds which at a smaller level are made from atoms. An atom is made from neutrons (no charge), protons (positively charged) and electrons (negatively charged). An atom is usually made up of the same number of protons, neutrons and electrons. As depicted below (Figure 8), the neutrons and protons are situated in the centre of the atom known as the nucleus, and the electrons circle this.

(Figure 8)

An atom is seen as stable when its electrons are all paired and the rings seen above (known as orbitals) are full. A free radical is formed when the orbitals of an atom contain an unpaired electron, for instance 3 electrons equalling one pair and one odd electron; this causes the atom to be unstable. Because atoms strive to be stable, this unstable form scavenges electrons from other atoms. By doing so, the free radical sets off a chain reaction causing cell damage, leaving the atom or cell it scavenged from, unstable. In turn this newly unstable atom creates another free radical and seeks a further electron to steal and so on. An antioxidant is a compound that is able to lend an electron to the unstable atom whilst still remaining stable itself. The principal defence against free radicals are body enzymes which convert free radicals into harmless compounds. For example one compound is H2OO2 which will be converted to the harmless product H2O (water) and O2 (oxygen).

Free radicals cause what is called oxidative stress, this is why they are natural enemies. In recent years, there has been much attention given to anti oxidants and the role they play in combating oxidative stress in the athlete, ageing, sedentary and clinically ill individuals.

Furthermore, as free radicals are catabolic in nature, the more free radicals are reduced the more an individual’s ability to recover is increased. Anti oxidants such as vitamin E can be purchased relatively cheaply and are supported by research which shows positive capability in reducing free radical damage after 3 weeks use. Glutamine is a substance which is easily depleted by exercise. It is integral to the immune system and is also one of the body’s own anti oxidants.

So another supplement which could be added to the list for the active or health conscious individual is the antioxidant along with vitamins and minerals.

Omega 3

Fat has a bad reputation. It is a word associated with obesity, heart disease and many other health conditions. However, not all fats are bad fats. Recent findings have shown the importance of ‘healthy fats’ within a balanced diet, particularly the role of Omega 3 which has shown to support the brain, nervous system, eyes and has also led to lower heart disease according to research.

Omega 3 is a type of fatty acid that the body cannot produce and is classed as an Essential Fatty Acid (EFA). As the typical western diet has become modernised and more convenience based food is consumed, the amounts of omega 3 within the typical diet has reduced drastically. Oily fish are the rich in Omega 3, particularly Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) and Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA). Many people do not come anywhere near the recommendation of 2-4 portions of oily fish a week and therefore will utilize supplements as an effective way of making sure they consume enough.

Omega 3 has been strongly linked with improving health relating to many conditions, such as:

• Reducing heart disease
• Reduction of serum levels of cholesterol.
• Reduction in inflammation
• Improvement of eye health
• Maintenance of brain health

One of the major issues with Omega 3 supplements is making sure that they are free from heavy metals and pollutants. Ensuring that you use a pharmaceutical grade product is essential.

Glucosamine

Glucosamine is an amino sugar normally formed from glucose. It is the starting point for the synthesis of many important macromolecules. The main purpose of glucosamine is to create long chains called glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) which the joints and cartilage require for repair.

The synthesis of glucosamine from glucose and glutamine is the rate-limiting step in GAG production, and hence in repairing cartilage. Following cartilage trauma or tearing, the body may not be able to make enough glucosamine for optimal healing. In addition, the ability to convert glucose to glucosamine declines with age because of a reduction in the amount of the enzyme glucosamine synthesise.

Due to the impact that can be caused during intense exercise, joint health may be compromised. Using glucosamine can be beneficial to help maintain joint health as well as recovery from injury.

Whilst many promote glucosamine based products as a ‘cure all’ for joint conditions, it will only be effective to those who are experiencing issues that relate to cartilage problems.